What's Needed During the Group
Recording the Group Discussion
Focus groups are typically recorded in two ways: by a tape recorder and with written notes. Written notes are essential. Typically the moderator will take a few notes, but note taking is really the role of the assistant who tries to capture complete statements of the participants-especially those comments that may be quotable. The note taking should not interfere with the spontaneous nature of the group interview, and only the moderator will be able to capture brief comments by participants. If the group has to wait until the moderator finishes taking notes, the discussion will hardly be free-flowing. Also, some participants wonder why the moderator takes notes on some statements and not on others.
Notes should be as complete as possible in case the tape recorder doesn't work. Tape recorders shouldn't be completely trusted. Murphy's Law dictates that the most insightful comment will be lost when the tape is being switched or when background noise drowns out voices on the tape. At times, the moderator and assistant moderator may get so involved in the discussion that they both forget to monitor the tape recorder.
Set up the tape-recording equipment and remote microphone before the meeting begins and in plain sight of participants. Hidden recorders and microphones are usually unwise because they create an unnecessarily secretive atmosphere. Introduce the recorder at the beginning of the discussion as a tool to help capture everyone's comments.
Avoid excessive attention to the tape recording. Occasionally, a novice moderator will appear nervous at this point-avoiding eye contact, stumbling over the explanation of taping, and commenting at length about the tape recording. Inadvertently, the moderator creates an environment that restricts the free flow of information due to over attention to recording. It is usually best to mention the recording and confidentiality and move on to the next topic. However, in work situations, participants may need more information, such as who will get to listen to the tape and how it will be used. In some situations, the tape recording is perceived as symbolic of careful listening.
EXAMPLE
The Tape Recorder Is a Signal of Listening
A large school system conducted focus groups on merit pay of teachers-a sensitive topic to most teachers. In the planning phase, some people on the study team were concerned that tape recording would inhibit conversation. The decision was made to try it and, if necessary, turn off the recording equipment. When the teachers arrived for the first focus group, one of the first comments was, "Finally the school administration is taking the opinions of teachers seriously." The moderator asked the teacher to comment further. The reply: "Well, you're tape recording our comments! All along the school administrators said they were listening and we knew they weren't because they didn't record, take notes, or anything. Now it looks like they are serious about listening." When topics of concern were addressed in the groups, the teachers would lean toward the microphone in the center of the table and talk slowly so that their comments would be clearly understood.
Getting great sound quality is difficult because recorders tend to pick up tapping of pencils and the hum of the ventilation system instead of the softly spoken comments of participants. Built-in microphones on cassette recorders don't pick up group discussions well, and their recordings are hard to listen to. Instead, we use an omnidirectional, pressure sensitive remote microphone placed in the center of the table. Pressure sensitive microphones pick up sound vibrations from the table. Occasionally, moderators use two microphones placed at different ends of the table, each connected to a recorder. Before people arrive for the group interview, the moderator should test recording equipment to be sure that all comments in the room will be captured, even if spoken in quiet tones.
Other ways are also being used to capture focus group results. Video cameras are more compact than ever before, but still they are obtrusive. We rarely use them. Another method is to digitally record the focus group onto a laptop computer using special software and then mark selected choice parts for later review and analysis (Belisle, 1998, p. 18). Still another strategy is to have a fast typist transcribe the focus group in real time. Voice recognition software is steadily improving and can transcribe voices that have been "trained" to be recognized by the software. In the near future, this software may be able to distinguish between multiple voices and offer immediate transcripts.
Beginning the Focus Group Discussion
The first few moments in a focus group discussion are critical. In this brief time, the moderator must give enough information so people feel comfortable with the topic, create a permissive atmosphere, provide the ground rules, and set the tone of the discussion. Much of the success of group interviewing can be attributed to this three- to five-minute introduction. Being too formal or rigid can stifle interaction among participants. By contrast, too much informality and humor can cause problems because participants might not take the discussion seriously. Veteran moderators testify that groups are unpredictable, and one group may be exciting and free-flowing, whereas another group might be low energy or cautious. Differences between groups should be expected; however, the moderator should introduce the group discussion in a consistent manner.
The recommended pattern for introducing the group discussion includes the following:
1. The welcome
2. The overview of the topic
3. The ground rules (or things that will help our discussion go smoothly)
4. The first question
Here is an example of a typical introduction:
Good evening and welcome. Thanks for taking the time to join our discussion of airplane travel. My name is Pete Krueger, and I represent the Happy Traveler Research Agency. Assisting me is Sheree Benson, also from the Happy Traveler Agency. We have been asked by the airline industry to help them get some information about how public employees feel about airline travel. They want the information to help them improve the service they provide.
You were invited because you are all government employees who work here in the metropolitan area and you have all flown at least four times in the past year. We want to tap into those experiences and your opinions about airline travel.
There are no right or wrong answers. We expect that you will have differing points of view. Please feel free to share your point of view even if it differs from what others have said.
We're tape recording the session because we don't want to miss any of your comments. No names will be included in any reports. Your comments are confidential. Keep in mind that we're just as interested in negative comments as positive comments, and at times the negative comments are the most helpful.
We have name tents here in front of us tonight. They help me remember names, but they can also help you. If you want to follow up on something that someone has said, you want to agree, or disagree, or give an example, feel free to do that. Don't feel like you have to respond to me all the time. Feel free to have a conversation with one another about these questions. I am here to ask questions, listen, and make sure everyone has a chance to share. We're interested in hearing from each of you. So if you're talking a lot, I may ask you to give others a chance. And if you aren't saying much, I may call on you. We just want to make sure we hear from all of you.
Feel free to get up and get more refreshments if you would like. Let's begin. Let's find out some more about each other by going around the room one at a time. Tell us your name and some of the places that you've flown to in the past year.
The first question is designed to get all participants to say something early in the conversation. It breaks the ice. After the participant has said something, it is more likely that he or she will speak again. In addition, the first question underscores the common characteristics of the participants and that they all have some basis for sharing information. This first question must be the type that can be answered in about thirty seconds and, as a result, will often consist of factual information. Furthermore, this first question cannot demand excessive reflection or long-past memories.
Anticipating the Flow of the Discussion
Group discussions are unpredictable. The discussion might flow precisely as planned, or it might take leaps and detours. Try to anticipate the various directions the discussion might take and recognize beneficial topics of discussion as opposed to dead ends. For example, in focus groups relating to community organizations, we have found that the discussion often leads to an evaluation of agency professionals-a topic that isn't the purpose of the study. In these cases, it is helpful to include a comment in the introduction about the scope of the study. "We are more interested in your opinions about programs, building facilities, and activities and less concerned about the people who deliver those services." Often a "mock discussion" with colleagues familiar with the participants will help identify some of the varieties of responses.
Sometimes participants will jump ahead and start talking about a question that comes later in your questioning route. They may start talking about Question 7 when you are still on Question 4. You need to decide whether to let the conversation move to Question 7 (which may be perfectly fine, but you'll want to return to Questions 5 and 6) or whether you want to bring them back to Question 4 right away. Expect these leaps. Know where you are going well enough to know if altering the flow matters.
CAUTION
Don't Invite Questions at the Beginning of the Focus Group
It is risky to ask the participants if they have questions when you begin the focus group. Unfortunately, these early participant questions may preempt the discussion and place the moderator in a defensive position. When confronted by certain questions, the moderator wilt appear apologetic and uncertain of the study. Examples include the following: "Who really wants this information? Are you really going to use what we tell you? Who else are you talking to? Why aren't you talking to X? What did X say? Can we see copies of the report?" instead, don't invite questions at the beginning, if someone does ask a question, the moderator might indicate that the topic will come later in the discussion. For more ideas, see the section later in this chapter on "Participant Queens,"
TIP
Think Past, Present, and Future
Successful moderators think about what has already been discussed, what is currently being said, and what still needs to be covered. This helps them take in the whole scope of the focus group and keep the discussion on track and on schedule.
Two Essential Techniques: The Pause and the Probe
Moderators of group discussions should be familiar with two essential techniques: the five-second pause and the probe. Both techniques are easy to use and helpful in drawing additional information from group participants. The five-second pause is often used after a participant comment. This short pause often prompts additional points of view or agreement with the previously mentioned position. There is a tendency for novice moderators to talk too much or to move too quickly from one topic to another, usually because they feel uncomfortable with silence. Often the short pause will elicit additional points of view, especially when coupled with eye contact from the moderator. Practice the five-second pause on family, friends, and coworkers. It allows you to become comfortable with this technique.
The second essential technique is the probe-the request for additional information. In most conversations and group discussions, there is a tendency for people to make vague comments that could have multiple meanings or to say "I agree." When this occurs, the probe is an effective technique to elicit additional information. Typically, probing involves comments such as the following:
* Would you explain further?
* Would you give me an example of what you mean?
* Would you say more?
* Tell us more.
* Say more.
* Is there anything else?
* Please describe what you mean.
* I don't understand.
Use the probe a few times early in the interview to communicate the importance of precision in responses. For example, if a participant indicates agreement by saying, "I agree," then the moderator should follow up with, "Tell us more," or "What experiences have you had that make you feel that way?" A few probes used in this way underscore the impression that more detailed answers are wanted. Excessive probing, however, can be time-consuming, annoying, and unnecessary. Participants may need to be reminded of the value of differing points of view. The introduction provides the first suggestion that all points of view are needed and wanted. A second reminder is helpful if the moderator senses that participants are simply "echoing" the same concept. After several echoes on the same idea, the moderator might ask, "Does anyone see it differently?" or "Has anyone had a different experience?" or "Are there other points of view?"
Experts, Dominant Talkers, Shy Participants, and Ramblers
One of the exciting aspects of focus group discussions is that they bring together people with different backgrounds and characteristics. However, individual characteristics can present challenges for the moderator. Four types of participants-the expert, the dominant talker, the shy participant, and the rambler-present challenges.
Self-appointed "experts" can present special problems in focus groups. What they say and how they say it can inhibit others in the group. Participants often defer to others who are perceived to have more experience or are better informed on a topic. Some people consider themselves experts because they have had considerable experience with the topic, Because they hold positions of influence in the community, or because they have previously participated in this type of session. Often the best way of handling experts is to underscore the fact that everyone is an expert and all participants have important perceptions that need to be expressed. In addition, the introductory question should avoid responses that would highlight participants' levels of education, affluence, years of experience with the topic, or social or political influence.
Dominant talkers sometimes consider themselves to be experts, but much of the time, they are unaware of how they are perceived by others. Often dominant talkers are spotted in pre-session small talk. As indicated earlier in this chapter, try to seat the dominant individual beside the moderator to exercise control by the use of body language. When this strategy does not work, then the more frontal tactic of verbally shifting attention is required. For example, "Thank you, John. Are there others who wish to comment on the question?" or "Does anyone feel differently?" or "That's one point of view. Does anyone have another point of view?" Other nonverbal techniques also can be used, such as avoiding eye contact with the talker. Most important, be tactful and kind, because harsh comments may curtail spontaneity from others in the group.
Shy respondents and reflective thinkers tend to say little. It seems that these participants think carefully first and then speak. By contrast, others in the group are thinking and speaking at the same time. Shy and reflective participants often have great insights, but it takes extra effort to get them to elaborate their views. If possible, the moderator should place shy respondents directly across the table to maximize eye contact. Eye contact often provides sufficient encouragement to speak, and if all else fails, the moderator can call on them by name. "Tom, I don't want to leave you out of the conversation. What do you think?"
Rambling respondents use a lot of words and take forever to get to the point, if they have a point. These individuals like to talk. Unfortunately, the rambling respondent is off track a fair amount of the time and can eat up precious discussion time. As a rule of thumb, we usually discontinue eye contact with the rambler after about twenty to thirty seconds. The assistant moderator should do likewise. Look at your papers, look at the other participants, turn your body away from the speaker, but don't look at the rambler. As soon as the rambler stops or pauses, the moderator should be ready to fire away with the next question or repeat the current question being discussed. In the remainder of the discussion, the moderating team may want to limit eye contact with the rambling individual.
Some moderators include a statement in the introduction that alerts participants to the importance of hearing from everyone. "From past experience in groups like this, we know that some people talk a lot, and some people don't say much. It is important that we hear from all of you because you've had different experiences. So if you are talking a lot, I may interrupt you, and if you aren't saying much, I may call on you. If I do, please don't feel bad about it. It is just my way of making sure we get through all the questions and that everyone has a chance to talk."
Don't assume that everyone should talk the same amount in a focus group. Some participants will just have more to say than others. If a participant is on track and giving helpful information, we usually let him or her continue to talk. However, we will take action if he or she is rambling or limiting the opportunity for others to talk.
Responding to Participants' Comments
Moderators should be attentive to how they respond to comments from participants-both verbal and nonverbal. Often moderator responses are unconscious habits. Self-discipline and practice are needed to overcome habits such as head nodding and short verbal responses.
Head Nodding
Some moderators will continually nod their head as comments are being made. If it is a slow continuous nod given to everyone, it often signals encouragement: "I'm listening, keep going." However, if it is a fast head nod, it probably signals agreement and, as a result, tends to elicit additional comments of the same type. As a rule of thumb, beginning moderators should try to restrict head nodding.
Short Verbal Responses
In many of our social interactions, we have become conditioned to provide short verbal responses that signal approval or acceptance. Many of these are acceptable within the focus group environment such as "OK," "Yes," or "Uh huh," but others should be avoided if they communicate indications of accuracy or agreement. Responses to avoid include "Correct," "That's good," or "Excellent" because they imply judgments about the quality of the comment.
Concluding the Focus Group
The moderator has several options for closing the focus group. Perhaps the most common procedure is simply to thank the group for participating, provide them with the gift or cash if promised, and wish them a safe journey home. A far better alternative is for the assistant moderator or the moderator to briefly summarize the main points and ask if this summary is accurate. This is helpful in the subsequent analysis process. It is the first opportunity the research team has to pull together a summary of the group discussion. When presenting the brief summary, the researchers should watch the body language of the participants for signs of agreement, hesitation, or confusion. When the two- to three-minute summary is completed, the moderator invites comments, amendments, or corrections.
An additional tactic for closure is asking the "final question" that was described in Chapter 3. The moderator provides an overview of the study and then asks the participants, "Have we missed anything?" A variation of this strategy is useful if participants are reluctant to talk because of sensitivity to the recording equipment. An alternative is to turn off the recording equipment, indicate that the discussion is now completed, thank them for their assistance, and then ask, "Do you think we've missed anything in the discussion?" This closure may uncover some avenues of thought that were not anticipated.
TIP
Anticipate Running Out of Time
Before you do the focus group, pretend that you've only asked half of the questions and only ten minutes remain. (We hope this never really happens to you.) Think about options that you might try and how to avoid the situation in the future.